MIT 6.S094 Deep Learning Basics: Introduction and Overview

Welcome, everyone to 2019 it’s really good to see everybody here make it in the cold This is 6.S094 deep learning for self-driving cars It is part of a series of courses on deep learning that we’re running throughout this month The website that you can get all the content the videos the lectures and the code is deep learning that MIT the IDU the videos and slides will be made available there along with a GitHub repository that’s accompanying the course Assignments for registered students will be emailed later on in the week and You can always contact us with questions concerns comments at HCAI Human-centered AI at mit.edu So let’s start through the basics the fundamentals To summarize in one slide What is deep learning? It is a way to extract useful patterns from data in an automated way was as little human Effort involved as possible hence the automated how the fundamental aspect that we’ll talk about a lot is the optimization of neural networks The practical nature that will provide through the code and so on is that there’s Libraries that make it accessible and easy to do some of the most powerful things in Deep learning using Python TensorFlow and friends the hard part always with Machine learning artificial Intelligence in general is asking good questions and getting good data a lot of times the exciting aspects of what’s the news covers and a lot of the exciting aspects of what is published in the prestigious conferences in an archive and a blog post is the methodology the hard part Is applying that methodology to solve real-world problems to solve fascinating interesting problems and that requires data That requires asking the right questions of that data organizing that data and Labeling selecting aspects of that data that can reveal the answers to the questions you ask So why has this Breakthrough over the past decade of the application of neural networks the ideas and neural networks what has happened What has changed? They’ve been around since the 1940s and And ideas have been percolating even before the digitization of information Data the ability to access data easily in a distributed fashion across the world all kinds of problems have now a digital form They could be accessed by learning algorithms hardware compute both the Moore’s Laws CPU and GPU and a6 of Google’s TPU systems hardware that enables the efficient effective large-scale execution of these algorithms Community people here people all over the world of being able to work together to talk to each other to feed the fire of excitement behind machine learning GitHub and beyond The tooling as we’ll talk about TensorFlow PyTorch and everything in between that enables the a person with an idea to Reach a solution in less and less and less time Higher and higher levels of abstraction empower people to solve problems in less and less time with less and less knowledge Where the idea and the data become the central point not the effort that takes you from the idea to the solution And there’s been a lot of exciting progress some of which we’ll talk about from phrase recognition to the general problem of Scene understanding image classification the speech text natural language processing transcription translation in medical applications of medical diagnosis and cars Being able to solve many aspects of perception in autonomous vehicles will travel the area lane detection object detection digital assistance Ones on your phone and beyond the ones in your home adds Recommender systems from Netflix to search to social Facebook and And of course the deeper enforcement learning successes in the playing of games from board games to Starcraft and Dota Let’s take a step back Deep learning is more than a set of tools to solve practical problems Pamela McCordic said in 79 AI began with the ancient wish to forge the gods Throughout our history Throughout our civilization human civilization we’ve dreamed about creating echoes of whatever is in this Mind of ours in the machine And creating living organisms from the popular culture in the 1800s with Frankenstein to X Machina this vision this dream of Understanding intelligence and creating intelligence has captivated all of us and And Deep learning is at the core of that because there’s aspects of it the learning aspects that captivate our imagination about what is possible given data and methodology what learning Learning to learn and beyond how far they can take us and Here visualizes just 3% of the neurons and 1 million of Of this synapses in our own brain this incredible structure that’s in our mind and there’s only echoes of it small Shadows of it in our artificial neural networks that were able to create but nevertheless those echoes are inspiring to us The history of neural networks on this pale blue dot of ours Started quite a while ago With summers and winters with excitements and periods of pessimism Starting in the 40s with neural networks and the implementation of those neural networks as a perceptron in the 50s with ideas of black propagation Restricted Boltzmann machines or current neural networks in the 70s and 80s with convolution neural networks and The emnest data set with data sets beginning to percolate in LSTM’s by directional RNNs in the 90s and The rebranding and the rebirth of neural networks under the flag of deep learning and deep belief nets in 2006 the birth of image net the data set that on which the Possibilities of a deep learning can bring to the world has been first illustrated in the recent years in 2009 and Alex net the network that an image net performed exactly that with a few ideas Like dropout that improving neural networks over time every year by year improving the performance of neural networks in 2014 The idea of Gans the young lakoon called the most exciting Idea of the last 20 years the generative adversarial networks the ability to with very little supervision generate Data degenerate ideas after forming representation of those it From the understanding from the high-level abstractions of what is extracted in the data be able to generate new samples Create the idea of being able to create as opposed to memorize is really exciting and on the applied side the 2014 with deep face the ability to do face recognition There’s been a lot of breakthroughs on the computer vision front that being one of them the world was Inspired captivated in 2016 without a go and 17 without a zero Beating with less and less and less effort the best players in the in the world that go the problem that for Most of the history of artificial intelligence thought to be unsolvable and new ideas with capsule networks and this year is the year 2018 was the year of natural language processing a lot of interesting breakthroughs Google’s Bert and others that will talk about breakthroughs on ability to understand language understand speech and Everything including generation that’s built all around that and There’s a parallel history of tooling starting in the 60s with the perceptron and the wiring diagrams they’re ending with this year with PyTorch 1.0 and TensorFlow 2.0 these really solidified exciting powerful ecosystems of tools that enable you to do very To do a lot with very little effort the sky is the limit thanks to the tooling So let’s then from the big picture taken to the smallest Everything should be made as simple as possible So let’s start simple with a little piece of code Before we jump Into the details and a big run through everything that is possible in deep learning At the very basic level with just a few lines of code really six here Six little pieces of code You can train in your own network that understand what’s going on in an image the classic that I will always love Emnes dataset the handwriting digits where the input to a neural network on where she learning system is the picture of a Handering digit and the output is the number that’s in that digit It’s as simple as in the first step Import the library tensor flow Second step import the dataset amnest third step Like Lego bricks stack on top of each other the neural network layer by layer With a hidden layer input layer and output layer Step four train the model as simple as a single line model fit Evaluate the model and step five on the testing data set and that’s it in step six you’re ready to deploy you’re ready to predict what’s in the image it’s as simple as that and much of this code obviously much more complicated or much more elaborate and rich and interesting and complex will be making available on Github on our repository that accompanies these courses today We’ve released the first tutorial on driver’s seat segmentation I encourage everybody to go through it and then on the tooling side in One slide before we dive into the neural networks and deep learning the tooling side Amongst many other things tensor flow is a deep learning library an open source library from Google The most popular one to date the most active with a large ecosystem It’s not just something you import in Python and to solve some basic problems. There’s an entire ecosystem of tooling There’s different levels of APIs Much of what we’ll do in this course will be the highest level API with carous But there’s also the ability to run in the browser with tens of flow JS on the phone with tens of flow light in the cloud without any need to have a Computer hardware anything any of the library set up a neural machine you can run all the code that we’re providing in the cloud with Google collab Collaboratory and the optimized a6 hardware that Google is Optimized for tens of flow with their tpu tensor processing unit ability to visualize tensor board models that provide intense TensorFlow hub and there’s just just the entire ecosystem including most importantly, I think documentation of blogs that Make it extremely accessible to understand the Fundamentals of the tooling that allow you to solve the problems from natural language processing to computer vision to Gans and general vetter soil neural networks and everything in between the deeper enforcement learning and so on so that that’s why we’ve We’re excited to sort of work both in the theory in this course in this series of lectures and in the in the tooling and they applied side of tens of flow it really makes it Exceptionally these ideas exceptionally accessible. So deep learning at the core is the ability to form higher and higher level of Abstractions of representations in data and raw patterns high and higher levels of understanding of patterns and Those representations Are extremely important and Effective for being able to Interpret data Under certain representations data is trivial to understand cat versus dog blue dot versus green triangle Under others it’s much more difficult and this in this task drawing a line under polar coordinates It’s trivial under Cartesian coordinates is very difficult and well impossible to do accurately And that’s a trivial example of the representations. So our task with deep learning with machine learning in general is forming representations that map the topology This the whatever the topology the rich space of the problem that you’re trying to deal with of the raw inputs Map it in such a way That the final representation is trivial to work with trivial to classify trivial to perform regression trivial to generate new samples of that data and that representation of higher and higher levels of representation is really the dream of Artificial intelligence that is what understanding is making the complex simple like Like Einstein back in a few slides ago said And that with Jörgen Schmitt Hooper and whoever else said it. I don’t know the that’s been the dream of all of science in general Of the history of science is the history of compression progress of forming simpler and simpler representations of ideas The the models of the universe of our solar system with the earth at the center of it is much more complex to perform to do physics on Then a model where the sun is at the center of those higher and higher levels of simple representations enable us to do extremely powerful things That has been the dream of science and the dream of artificial intelligence And why deep learning? What is the special lot deep learning in the grander world of machine learning at artificial intelligence? It’s the ability to More and more remove the input of human experts Remove the human from the picture the human costly and efficient effort of human beings in the picture Deep learning automates much of the extraction from the Ro gets us closer and closer to the raw data without the need of human Involvement human expert involvement ability to perform representations from the raw data as opposed to having a human being need to extract Features as was done in the 80s and 90s and the early odds to extract features with which then the machine learning algorithms can work with the Automated extraction of features enables us to work with larger and larger data sets removing the human completely Except from the supervision labeling step at the very end. It doesn’t require the human expert But at the same time there is Limits to our technologies. There’s always a balance between Excitement and disillusionment the gardener hype cycle As much as we don’t like to think about it applies to almost every single technology of course the magnitude of the peaks and the drawouts is different But I would say we’re at the peak of a inflated expectation with deep learning and That’s something we have to think about as we talk about some of the ideas and exciting possibilities in the future And we sell driving cars that we’ll talk about in the future lectures in this course. We’re at the same In fact, we’re a little bit beyond the peak and so it’s up to us. This is MIT and the engineers and the people working in this in the world to carry us through the draw to carry us through the future as the ups and downs of the excitement Progress as forward Into the plateau of productivity Why else not deep learning? If we look at real world applications Especially with humanoid robotics robotic manipulation and Even yes autonomous vehicles majority the aspects of autonomous vehicles do not involve to an extensive amount machine learning to date The problems are not formulated as data driven learning instead their model-based Optimization methods that don’t learn from data over time and then from the speakers that these following these couple of weeks We’ll get to see how much machine learning is starting to creep in but the examples shown here with the Boston with amazing humanoid robotics and Boston dynamics To date almost no machine learning has been used except for trivial perception The same with autonomous vehicles almost no machine learning deep learning has been used except with perception Some aspect of enhanced perception from the visual texture information Plus what’s becoming what’s starting to be used a little bit more is Use of recurring neural networks to predict the future to predict the bait the intent of the different Players in the scene in order to anticipate what the future is but these are very early steps most of the success of the C today the 10 million miles away most achieved has been Attributed mostly to non machine learning methods Why why else not deep learning? Here’s a really clean example of unintended consequences Of ethical issues we have to really think about when an algorithm learns from data based on an objective function a lost function the power the Consequences of an algorithm that optimizes that function is not always obvious Here’s an example of a human player playing the game of coastrunners with a It’s a boat racing game where the task is to go around the race track and try to win the race and The objective is to get as many points as possible. There are three ways to get points The finishing time how long it took you to finish the finishing position where you were in the ranking and picking up quote unquote turbos those little green things along the way they give you points Okay, simple enough. So we design an agent in this case in our early agent that optimizes for the awards and What we find on the right here the optimal the agent discovers that the optimal is actually has nothing to do with finishing the race or the ranking They can get much more points by just focusing on the turbos and collecting those those little green dots because they regenerate So you go in circles over and over and over slamming it to the wall collecting the the green turbos Now that’s a very clear example of a well-reasoned Formulated objective function that has totally unexpected consequences at least without sort of considerate Considering those consequences ahead of time and so that shows the need for AI safety for a human in the loop of machine learning That’s why not deep learning exclusively The challenge of deep learning algorithms of deep learning applied It’s to ask the right question and understand what the answers mean you have to take a step back and and look at the difference the Distinction the levels degrees of what the algorithm is accomplishing for example image classification is not necessarily Scene understanding in fact. It’s very far from scene understanding Classification may be very far from understanding and the data sets very drastically across the different benchmarks and the data sets used The professionally done photographs versus synthetically generated images versus real-world data and The real world data is where the big impact is so oftentimes the one doesn’t transfer to the other That’s the challenge of deep learning Solving all of these problems of different lighting variations of pose variation interclass variation All the things that we take for granted human beings with our incredible perception system all have to be solved in order to gain greater and greater Understanding of a scene and all the other things we have to close the gap on that we’re not even close to yet Here’s an image from the Carpati under Capati blog from a few years ago of Former president Obama stepping on a scale We can classify we can do Semitic segmentation of the scene we can do object detection We can do a little bit of 3d reconstruction from a video version of the scene, but Well, we can’t do well is all the things we take for granted we can’t tell the images in the mirrors Versus in reality as different we can’t deal with a sparsity of information Just a few pixels on president Obama’s face. We can still identify them as the president The 3d structure of the scene That there’s a foot on top of a scale that there’s Human beings behind with from a single image things we can trivily do using all the common sense semantic knowledge that we have Cannot do the physics of the scene that there’s gravity the And the biggest thing the hardest thing is what’s on people’s minds and what’s on people’s minds about what’s on other people’s minds and so on Mental models of the world being able to infer what people are thinking about be able to infer There’s been a lot of exciting work here at MIT about what people are looking at But we’re not even close to solving that problem either, but what they’re thinking about we’re not even We haven’t even begun to really think about that problem and we do trivily as human beings And I think at the core of that I think I’m harboring on the visual perception problem Because it’s one we take really for granted as human beings Especially when trying to solve real-world problems especially when trying to solve autonomous driving is We’ve have 540 million years of data for visual perception, so we take it for granted We don’t realize how difficult it is and we kind of focus all our attention on this recent development of a hundred thousand years of Abstract thought being able to play chess being able to reason but the visual perception is nevertheless Extremely difficult at all at every single layer of what’s required to perceive interpret and understand the fundamentals of a scene as An attrivial way to show that is just all the ways you can mess with these image classification systems by adding a little bit of noise The last few years there’s been a lot of papers a lot of work to show that you can mess with these systems by adding noise Here with 99% accuracy predict a dog add a little bit of distortion You you immediately the system predicts with 99% accuracy. It’s an ostrich and you can do that kind of manipulation With just a single pixel so the that’s just a clean way to show The gap between image classification on an artificial data cell like image net and real-world perception that has to be solved Especially for life critical situations like autonomous driving. I really like this Max tag marks visualization of this rising sea from that of the landscape of human competence from Hans Marvach and This is the Difference as we progress forward and we discuss some of these machine learning methods is There is the human intelligence the general human intelligence that let’s call Einstein here That’s able to generalize over all kinds of problems over all kinds of from the common sense to the incredibly complex And then there is the way we’ve been doing Especially data driven machine learning which is savants which is specialized Intelligence extremely smart at a particular task But not being able to transfer except in the very narrow neighborhood on this little landscape of Different of arts and the photography book writing at the peaks and chess arithmetic and theorem proving envision at the at the bottom in the lake and there’s this rising sea as we saw a problem after problem The question can the methodology in and the approach of deep learning of everything we’re doing now Keep the sea rising or do fundamental breakters have to happen in order to generalize and solve these problems And so from the specialized where the successes are the systems are essentially boiled down to Given the data set and given the ground truth for that data set here’s the apartment cost in the Boston area Be able to input several parameters and based on those parameters predict the apartment cost That’s the basic premise approach that behind the successes successful supervised deep learning systems today If you have good enough data that’s good enough ground truth and can be formalized we can solve it some of the recent promise that we will do an entire series of lectures in the third week on deeper enforcement learning showed that From raw sensory information with very little annotation through self-play whether systems learn Without human supervision are able to perform extremely well in these constrained context the question of a video game here Pong to pixels being able to perceive the raw pixels of this pond game As raw input and learn the fundamental Quote physics of this game understand how it is This game behaves and how to be able to win this game that’s kind of a step toward general purpose artificial intelligence But it is a very small step because it’s in a simulated very trivial Situation that’s the challenge that’s before us Would less and less human supervision be able to solve huge real world problems from the Top supervised learning where majority of the teaching is done by human beings throughout the annotation process through labeling all the data by showing different examples and further and further down to semi-supervised learning reinforcement learning and supervised learning removing the teacher from the picture and making that teacher extremely efficient when it is needed Of course data augmentation is as one way as we’ll talk about that so taking a small number of examples and Messing with that set of Examples augmenting that set of examples through trivial and through complex methods of cropping stretching shifting and so on Including through generative networks Modifying those images to grow a small data set into a large one to minimize to Decrease further and further the input that’s a human is the input of the human teacher But still that’s quite far away from The incredibly efficient both teaching and learning that humans do this is a Video and there’s many of of them online for the first time I beat a human baby walking We learn to do this You know it’s one shot learning One day you’re on four all fours and the next day you put your two hands up and then you figure out the rest one shot Well, you can kind of Ish you can kind of play around with it, but the point is you’re extremely efficient With only a few examples are able to learn the fundamental aspect of how to solve a particular problem Machines the most cases Need thousands millions and sometimes more examples depending on the life critical nature of the application The data flow of Supervised learning systems is there’s input data is a learning system and there is output Now in the training stage for the output we have the ground truth and so We use that ground truth to teach the system in the testing stage when it goes out into the wild There’s new input data over which we have to generalize with the learning system and have to meet our best guests in the training stage that the processes with neural networks is Given the input data for which we have the ground truth pass it through the model get the prediction and Given that we have the ground truth we can compare the prediction to the ground truth look at the error and based on the error Adjust the weights the types of predictions we can make is aggression and classification regress as a continuous and classifications categorical Here if we look at what if we look at whether the regression problem says what is the temperature going to be tomorrow and the classification formulation of that problem says is it going to be hot or cold with some threshold definition of what hot or cold is That’s regression classification now the classification front it can be multi-class Which is the the standard formulation with your task with saying What is there’s only a particular entity can be only be one thing and then there’s multi-label or a particular entity can be multiple things and And overall the input to the system can be not just a single sample of the particular data set and the output doesn’t have to be a particular sample of the ground truth data set it can be a sequence Sequence the sequence a single sample to a sequence a sequence to sample and so on from video captioning where it’s video captioning to translation to natural language generation to of course the one to one computer computer vision Okay, that’s the bigger picture. Let’s step back from the big to the small to a single neuron inspired by our own Brain the biological neural networks in our brain in the computational block that is behind a lot of the intelligence in our mind The artificial neuron has inputs with weights on them plus a bias and an activation function and an output It’s inspired by this thing So I showed it before here visualizes the Theloma cortical system with 3 million neurons and 476 million synapses the full brain has a hundred billion billion neurons and and a thousand trillion synapses ResNet and some of the other state of the art networks have in the tens hundreds of millions of edges of synapses The human brain has 10 million times more synapses than artificial neural neural networks and there’s other differences the The Topology is asynchronous and not constructed in layers the learning algorithm for artificial neural networks is back propagation for Our biological networks we don’t know that’s one of the mysteries of the human brain there’s ideas But we really don’t know the power consumption human brains are much more efficient than you know networks That’s one of the problems that we’re trying to solve and asics are starting to begin to solve some of these problems and The stages of learning in the biological neural networks you really never stop learning you’re always learning always changing both on the hardware and the software in Artificial neural networks oftentimes there’s a training stage There’s distinct training stage and there’s a distinct testing stage when you release the thing in the wild online learning is an exceptionally difficult thing That we’re still still in the very early stages of This neuron Takes a few inputs the fundamental computational block behind neural networks takes a few inputs Applies weights which are the parameters that are learned sums them up puts it into a non-linear activation function after adding the bias also Also also learned parameter and gives an output and the task of this neuron is to get excited based on certain aspects of the layers features inputs that follow before and In that ability to discriminate get excited by certain things and get not excited by other things Hold a little piece of information of whatever level of abstraction it is so when you combine many of them together You have knowledge Different levels of abstractions form a knowledge base that’s able to represent understand or Even act on a particular set of raw inputs and you stack these neurons together in layers both in width and depth Increasing further on and there’s a lot of different Architecture variants, but they begin at this basic fact that with just a single hidden layer of a neural network The possibilities of endless it can approximate any arbitrary function Adding a neural network with a single hidden layer can approximate any function that means any other neural network with multiple layers and so on is just interesting Automizations of how we can discover those functions the possibilities are endless and The other aspect here is the mathematical underpinnings of Neural networks with the weights and the differentiable activation functions are such that in a few steps from the inputs to the outputs are Are deeply parallelizable and that’s why the other aspect on the compute the Paralyze ability of neural networks is what enables some of the exciting Advancements on the graphical processing unit the GPUs and with asix TPUs the ability to run across Across machines across GPU units In the Very large distributed scale to be able to train and perform inference and neural networks Activation functions These activation functions put together Our tasks are optimizing a loss function For aggression that loss function is Mean squared error usually there’s a lot of areas and for classifications cross entropy loss and the cross entropy loss the ground truth is zero one in the mean squared error it’s It’s a it’s a real numbered And so with the loss function and the weights and the bias and the activation functions Propagating forward to the network from the input to the output Using the loss function we use the algorithm of back propagation And we should it entire lecture last time To adjust the weights to have the error flow back rest of the network and adjust the weights such that once again the weights that were responsible for For producing the correct output our Increase in the weights that were responsible for producing the incorrect output or decreased The forward pass gives you the error the backward pass Computes the gradients and based on the gradients the optimization algorithm combined with a learning rate adjust the weights The learning learning rate is how fast the network learns and all of this is possible on On the numerical computation side with automatic differentiation The optimization problem given those gradients that are computed and about enough Backward flow to the network of the gradients is to cast the gradient descent There’s a lot of variance of this optimization algorithms that solve various problems from dying greatly used to vanish in gradients There’s a lot of different parameters a momentum and And so on that’s really just boiled down to all the different problems that are solved with non-linear optimization many batch size What is the right size of a batch or really it’s called many batch when it’s not the entire data set To you based on which to compute the gradients to just the learning Do you do it over a very large amount or do you do it with the cast the gradient descent them for every single sample of the data? If you listen to y’all a koon and a lot of recent literature is Small mini batch sizes are good. He says training with large mini batches is bad for your health More importantly is bad for your test error friends don’t let friends use mini batches larger than 32 larger batch size means More computational speed Because you don’t have to update the ways as often but smaller batch size and Parachly produces better generalization The problem we’re often on the broader scale of learning trying to solve is Overfitting and the way we solve it is the regularization We want to train on a data set without memorizing to an extent that you only do well in that trained data set So you want it to be generalizable into future into into into the into the future things that you haven’t seen yet So obviously this is a problem for small data sets and also for sets of parameters that you choose here shown an example of a Sign curve trying to fit a particular data versus a ninth degree polynomial trying to fit a particular set of data with the blue dots The ninth degree polynomial is overfitting It does very well for that particular set of samples, but does not generalize well in the general case and The trade-off here is as you train further and further At a certain point there’s a deviation between the The error being decreased to zero on the training set and Going to one on the test set and that’s the balance with the strike That’s done with the validation set So you take a piece of the training set for which you have the ground truth and you call it the validation set You set it aside and you evaluate the performance of your system on that of validation set and After you notice that your trained network is performing poorly on the validation set for a long period of time That’s when you stop that’s early stoppage Basically is getting better and better and better and then there is some period of time There’s always noise of course and after some period of time is definitely getting worse And that’s we need to stop there so that provides an automated way to Discovering when you need to stop and there’s a lot of other regularization methodologies Of course as I mentioned dropout is very interesting approach for and its variance of Simply with a certain kind of probability Randomly remove nodes in the network Both incoming and outgoing edges Randomly throughout the training process and there’s normalization and Normalization is Obviously always applied at the input so whenever you have a data set has different lighting conditions different variations They get different sources and so on you have to all kind of put it on the same level ground So that we’re learning the fundamental aspects of the input data as opposed to the some some less relevant semantic information like lighting Variations so on so a Usually always normalize for example if it’s a computer vision with pixels from 0 to 255 You always normalize to 0 to 1 or negative 1 to 1 or Normalize based on the mean and the standard deviation That’s something you should almost always do the Thing that enabled a Lot of breakthrough performances in the past few years is batch normalization is performing this kind of same normalization later on in the network Looking at the inputs to the hidden layers and Normalizing based on the batch of data which which your training normalize based on the mean and the standard deviation as Batch normalization with batch renormalization fixes a few of the challenges which is Given that you’re normalizing during the training On the meaty batch and the training data set that doesn’t directly map to the inference stage and the testing and so it allows by keeping a running average it Across both training and testing you’re able to asymptotically approach a global normalization So there’s this idea across all the weights not just the inputs across all the weights you normalize this the Normalize the world in all the levels of abstractions the year for me and batch renorm solves a lot of these problems during inference And there’s a lot of other ideas from layer to way to instance normalization to group normalization and you can play with a lot of these ideas in A test of flow playground on playground test of flow.org. They’re highly recommend So now let’s run through a bunch of different ideas some of which we’ll cover in future lectures Of what is all of this in this world of deep learning from computer vision to deeper enforcement learning to the different Small level techniques to the large natural language processing So convolutional networks the thing that enables Image classification. So these convolutional filters slide over the image and are able to take advantage of the the spatial invariance of visual information That I cat in the top left corner is the same as Features associated with cats in the top right corner and so on images are just a set of numbers and our task is to take that image and Produce the classification and use the spatial in the The spatial variance of visual information to make that To Slide a convolution filter across the image and learn that filter as opposed to It’s opposed to assigning equal Value to features that are present in various at various regions of the image and stacked on top of each other these convolution filters can form High-level abstractions of visual information and images With Alex net as I’ve mentioned on an image net data set and challenge Capturing the world of what is possible with neural networks have been further and further improved superseding human Human performance with of special note Google net with the inception module there’s different ideas that came along and resonate with the residual blocks and SC net most recently so the object detection problem is a step the next step in the visual recognition so the image classification is just taking the entire image is saying what’s in the image object detection localization is saying Find all the objects of interest in the scene and classify them The region-based methods like shown here fast RC and N Takes the image uses convolution neural network to extract features in that image and generate region proposals Here’s a bunch of candidates that you should look at and within those candidates It classifies what they are and generates a four parameters the baloney box that That’s that thing that captures that thing so object detection localization ultimately boils down to a bounding box a rectangle with a class that’s the most likely class that’s in that bounding box and And you can really summarize region-based methods as you generate the region proposal here a little pseudo code and you have for loop over the over the region proposals and Perform detection on the on that for loop The single-shot methods remove the for loop. It’s a single pass through Yeah, a bunch of take a for example here showing SSD take a pre-trained neural network That’s been trained to do image classification stack a bunch of convolutional layers on top from each layer extract features That are then able to generate in a single pass classes The bounding boxes bounding box predictions and the class associated with those bounding box The trade-off here. This is where the popular yellow v123 come from the The trade-off here oftentimes is in performance and accuracy So single-shot methods are are often less performing especially on in terms of accuracy on objects that are really far away or rather objects that are small in the image or really large Then the next step up in visual perception visual understanding is semantic segmentation that’s where the tutorial that we presented here on github is covering semantic segmentation is the task of now as opposed to a bounding box or the classifying the entire image or detecting the objects as a bounding box is assigning at a pixel level the boundaries of what the object is It’s every single in full-scene classifying what every single pixel which class that pixel belongs to and the fundamental aspect there is we’ll cover a little bit or a lot more on Wednesday is taking a image classification network chopping it off at some point and then having which is performing the encoding step of compressing a representation of the scene and taking that representation with a decoder upsampling in a dense way the So taking that representation and upsampling The pixel level classification. So that upsampling there’s a lot of tricks that we’ll talk through that are interesting But ultimately boils down to the encoding step of forming a representation what’s going on in the scene and then the decoding step that upsamples the pixel level annotation classification of all the individual pixels And as I mentioned here the underlying idea applied most extensively most successfully in computer vision is transfer learning most commonly applied way of transfer learning is taking a pre-trained neural network like ResNet and chopping it off at some point it’s chopping out the fully connected layer layers some aspect some parts of the layers and then taking a data set that a new data set and retraining that network So what is this useful for for every single application computer vision in industry when you have a specific application Like you want to build a pedestrian detector If you want to build a pedestrian detector and you have a pedestrian data set It’s useful to take resin that trained on ImageNet or cocoa trained in the general case of vision perception and taking that network chopping out some of the layers and then retraining on your specialized pedestrian data set And depending on how large that data set is The some of the previous layers that from the pre-trained network should be fixed frozen and sometimes not depending on how large the data is And this is extremely effective in computer vision, but also in audio speech and NLP And so as I mentioned with the pre-trained networks They are ultimately forming Representations of the data based on which classifications the regression is made prediction is made But a cleanest example of this is the autoencoder or forming representations in an unsupervised way The output the input is an image and the output is that exact same image So why do we do that? Well if you To add a bottleneck in the network where there is where the network is Never at the in the middle that it is on the inputs and the outputs It’s forced to compress the data down into meaningful representation. That’s what the autoencoder does It’s training it to reproduce the output and reproduce it with a latent representation that is smaller than the original raw data And that’s a really powerful way to compress the data. It’s used for removing noise and so on But it’s also just an effective way to demonstrate the concept. It can also be used for embeddings We have a huge amount of data and you want to form a Compressed efficient representation of that data now in practice This is completely unsupervised in practice if you want to form an efficient useful representation of the data You want to train it in a supervised way You want to train it on a discriminative task where you have labeled data And the network is trained to identify cab versus dog that network that’s trained in a discriminative way on an annotated supervised learning way It’s able to form better representation but nevertheless the concept stands and one way to visualize these concepts is the The tool that I really love projector dot tensor flow dot org is a way to visualize these different representations these different embeddings You should you should definitely play with and you can insert your own data Okay going further and further in this direction of unsupervised and forming representations is generative adversarial networks From these representations being able to generate new data and the fundamental methodology of of GANS is to have two networks one is the generator one of the discriminator and they compete against each other in order to for the generator To get better and better and better generating realistic images The generators task from noise to generate images based on a certain representation that are realistic and the discriminator is the the critic That has to discriminate between real images and those generated by the generator and both get better together The generator gets better and better at generating real images to trick the discriminator and a discriminator gets better and better at Telling different telling the difference to real fake until the generator until the generator is able to generate some incredible things So shown here in by the work within video I mean the the ability to generate realistic faces as skyrocketed in the past three years So this the these are samples of celebrities photos that have been able to generate those are all generated by a GAN there’s ability to generate Temporally consistent video over time with GANS and then there’s the ability shown at the bottom right and Nvidia I’m sure they’ll I’m sure ours will talk about The on a pixel level from semantic segmentation being so from from the semantic pixel segmentation on the right being able to generate completely the scene on the left The all the raw rich high definition pixels on the left The natural language processing world same forming representations forming embeddings with Word to veck ability to from words to form representation that are efficiently able to Then be used to reason about the words the whole idea of forming representation about the data is Taking a huge you know vocabulary of a million words. You want to be able to map it into a space where words that are far apart from each other are in in a Euclidean sense In Euclidean distance between words are are cementically far apart from each other as well So things that are similar are together in that space and One way of doing that with skip grams for example is looking at a source text and Turning into a large body of text into a supervised learning problem by learning to map predict from the words from a particular word to all its neighbors. So train a network on the connections that are commonly seen in natural language and based on those connections you’re able to know which words are related to each other now the main thing here is I won’t get into too many details, but the the main thing here with the input vector representing the words and the output of vector representing the probability that those words are connected to each other the main thing Both are thrown away in the end the main thing is the middle the hidden layer the load that representation gives you the embedding That’s represent these words in such a way where in the Euclidean space the ones that are close together semantically Are semantically together in the ones that are not are semantically far apart and natural language and other sequence data text speech audio video relies on recurrent neural networks The kernel networks are able to learn temporal data temporal dynamics in the data Sequence data and are able to generate sequence data The challenge is that they’re not able to learn long-term context Because when unrolling a neural network it’s trained by unrolling and doing bad propagation Without any tricks the bad propagation of the gradient fades away very quickly So you’re not able to memorize the context in a longer form of the sentences unless there’s extensions here with With LSTM’s and GRU’s long-term dependency is captured by allowing the network to forget Information allow it to freely pass through information in time So what to forget what to remember and every time decide what to output and all of those aspects have gates that are all trainable with sigmoid and 10-age functions by direction of real recurrent neural networks From the 90s is an extension often used for providing context in both direction So Recurrent neural networks simply define vanilla way is Learning representations for what happened in the past now in many cases you’re able you it’s not real-time operation in that You’re able to also look into the future you look into the data that falls out to the sequence So benefits you do a forward pass to the network beyond the current and then back The encoder decoder architecture and I recurrent neural networks Used very much when the sequence on the input and the sequence on the output are not relied to be of the same length The you the task is to first with the encoder network encode everything that Came everything on the input sequence. This is useful for machine translation for example so encoding all the information the input sequence in English and then and the language you translating to Given that representation keep feeding it into the decoder recurrent neural network to generate the translation The input might be much smaller and much larger than the output. That’s the encoder decoder Architecture and then there’s improvements Attention is the improvement on this encoder decoder architecture that allows you to as opposed to taking the Input sequence forming representation of it and that’s it It allows you to actually look back at different parts of the input so not just relying on the on the The single vector representation of all the entire input And a lot of excitement Has been around the idea as I mentioned some of the dream of artificial intelligence the machine learning in general Has been to remove the human more and more and more from the picture They’re being able to automate some of the difficult tasks. So auto ml from Google and just the general concept of neural architecture search nasnet the ability to automate the discovery of parameters of a neural network And the ability to discover the actual architecture that produces the best result So with neural architecture search you have basic Basic modules similar to the resonant modules And with the recurrent neural network you keep assembling and network together And the value and assembling in such a way that it Minimizes the loss of the overall classification performance And it’s shown that you can then construct a neural network that’s much more efficient And much more accurate than state of the art On classification tasks like image net here shown with a plot Or at the very least competitive with the state of the art and a cnet It’s super exciting that as opposed to like I said stacking Lego pieces yourself The final result is essentially you step back and you say here’s I have a data set with the With the labels with the ground truth Which is what Google the dream of Google auto ml is I have the data set you tell me what kind of neural network Will do best on this data set and that’s it. So all you bring is the data it constructs the network Through this neural architecture search and it returns to you the model and that’s it. It solves it’s it makes it possible to solve Except you know solve many of the real world problems that essentially bowl down to I have a few classes I need to be very accurate on here’s my data set And then I converts the the problem of a deep learning researcher to the problem of maybe what’s traditionally what’s more commonly called This sort of a data science engineer where the task is as I said focuses on what is the right question And what is the right data to solve that question? And deeper enforcement learning Taking further steps along the path of decreasing human input Deep reinforcement learning is the task of an agent to act in the world based on the observations of the state And their awards receiving that state Knowing very little about the world and Learning from the very sparse nature of their awards sometimes only when you In in the gaming context when you win or lose or in the robotics context when you successfully accomplish a task or not with a very sparse reward I able to learn how to behave in that world here with With cats learning how the bell maps to the food and a lot of the amazing work at open AI and deep mind about the robotics manipulation and navigation Through self-play in simulated environments and of course the best for our own Deep reinforcement learning competition with deep traffic that all of you can participate and I encourage you to try to win That with no supervised knowledge No human supervision through sparse rewards from the simulation or through self-play Constructs able to learn how to operate successfully in this world And those are the steps we’re taking towards general towards artificial general intelligence. This is the exciting from From the breakthrough ideas that we’ll talk about on Wednesday natural language processing to generate adversarial networks They able to generate arbitrary data high resolution data create data really from its understanding of the world to Deep reinforcement learning being able to learn how to act in the world very little input from human Supervision is taking further and further steps and there’s been a lot of exciting ideas going by different names sometimes misused sometimes overused sometimes misinterpreted of transfer learning Meta learning and the hyper parameter architecture search basically removing a human as much as possible From the menial task and involving the human only on the fundamental side as I mentioned with the racing boat on the ethical side And the things that us humans at least pretend to be quite good at which is understanding the fundamental big questions Understanding the data that empowers us to solve real world problems and understand the ethical balance They needs to be struck in order to solve those problems well and as on the bottom right I show that’s our job here in this room Our job for all the engineers in the world to solve these problems and progress forward Through the current summer and through the winter if it ever comes so with that I’d like to Thank you and you can get the videos code and so on online deep learning that I’m at you. Thank you very much guys